The definition of PA is a mental state in which a child-usually one whose parents are engaged in a high-conflict separation or divorce-allies strongly with one parent (the favored parent) and rejects a relationship with the other parent (the alienated parent) without a good reason ( Bernet, W, 2022 ).
Historical Terminology and Conflation with PAS
The term “parental alienation” has been historically used, but often conflated with the term “ parental alienation syndrome (PAS).”
Eight Defining Behaviors of Parental Alienation
Parental alienation is characterized by eight behaviors as originally conceptualized by Gardner (1986, 1987, 1992a; Lorandos, Bernet, & Sauber, 2013), which include denigration, frivolous rationalization for complaint, lack of ambivalence, independent-thinker phenomenon, reflexive support of the alienating parent, absence of guilt, borrowed scenarios, and spreading animosity.
Cognitive Dissonance and Parental Alienation
Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) has been applied to PA theory to explain child anxiety and denial behaviors. (Bernet, 2017; Moore & Ordway, 2013), differentiating it from dissociation.
DSM-5 Task Force and Parental Alienation
William Bernet acknowledged that the DSM-5 task force concluded parental alienation did not meet the criteria of a mental disorder in individual terms (Reiger, 2012).
Gardner’s Perspective on PAS
Gardner stated that PAS includes not only conscious factors but also subconscious and unconscious factors that arise within the child independent of parental contributions.
Criticism from American Educational
Research Foundation
The American Educational Research Foundation and the American Psychiatric Association criticized the standards for psychological tests used in assessing parental alienation, particularly for their validity (M. Simring Mishman, 2019).
Evidence Supporting Parental Alienation
The evidence base for parental alienation primarily consists of clinical examples and expert opinions, but lacks differentiation from other similar phenomena (Saini, Johnston, Fidler & Bala, 2012, 2026; Clawar & Rivlin, 2013; Dunn, 2013; Lorandos, Bernet & Sauber, 2013; Michman, S., 2019).
Methodological Flaws in PA Studies
Parental alienation research has been critiqued for serious methodological flaws (Saini, M, Johnston, J.R., Fidler, B.J., and Bala, N. 2012).
Theoretical Developments in PA Research
Recent shifts in parental alienation research include “Uncertain Reduction Theory” (Harmon et al., 2022) and “Attachment-Based Parental Alienation” ( “ its not a theory, it’s a pathology, “ states Childress, C. 2015) .
Confirmatory Bias in PA Theory
Parental alienation research has been criticized for confirmatory bias due to a lack of searches for disconfirming evidence (Drozd et al, 2013; Gould & Martindale, 2007; Zaph & Drozd, 2017).
Dilution of PA Theory and Hybrid Cases
The shift from “pure cases of alienation” to hybrid-factor cases has diluted the original PA theory. ( Burrill, 2006; Fidler et al, 2012; Rand et al 2005 ).
Identity Fusion Theory and PA
“Identity Fusion Theory” has been integrated into PA research by Harmon, J.J.; Mathewson, M.L.; Baker, A.J.L., although evidence supporting this theory in PA studies is limited or non-existant.
False Memories and Betrayal Trauma in PA
The assumption in PA theory that children have false memories of abuse is contrasted by research on betrayal trauma, which has proven in laboratory testing that memories of abuse are more likely to be repressed,not confabulated (Freyd, Jennifer, J., 1994).
Thought Retrieval Suppression in
Abused Children
In cases of claimed abuse, children have been shown to employ thought retrieval suppression to manage memories, as per laboratory studies in this field ( Freyd, 1994 ).
Criticism of Intensive Parental Alienation
Therapies
Intensive parental alienation therapies have been criticized for being both ineffective and often harmful to children, as confirmed by Jean Mercer, (2019).
PAS Symptoms and Criminology
The 8 symptoms of PAS have never been equated to deviant behavior, but in the field of criminology, such children would be branded for behaving outside social norms (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990).
PA Theory and Mental Processing
Parental alienation theory has overlooked recent scientific data in mental processing, particularly the evidence of a psychological refractory period (Klapp, et al 2019).
Reunification Therapy and its High Failure Rate
Despite its high failure rates, reunification therapy remains a common intervention sought by targeted parents in cases of alienation (Dunne & Hendrick, 1994; Fidler & Bala, 2020; Garber, 2015; Lapel, 1986; Lowenstein, 2006; Rand & Rand, 2006; Rand & Kopetsky, 2015; Sullivan, Ward & Deutsch, 2010; and Warshak, R., 2003).
Link Between PA and Betrayal Trauma Theory
Recent shifts in PA research have linked it to Betrayal Trauma Theory and dissociation (Miller, A., 1999; Woodall, K., 2019; Goldberg, J. 2023).
ISSTD’s Position on Alienation and Dissociation
The International Society for Trauma and Dissociation has publicly confirmed that alienating behaviors cause trauma in children and adolescents, and this trauma is what leads to dissociative symptoms and disorders.
This detailed narrative presents a comprehensive overview of the research on parental alienation, highlighting its evolution, criticisms, and the current state of understanding within this field.