In the early years of stress and self-regulation research, Baumeister and Heatherton, ( 1996 ) found, “ many patterns of self-regulation break down when people are under stress, presumably because stress depletes self-regulation capacities. ” Stress research has been growing in scientific interest for several decades, perhaps due to many stress disorders in modern times. Since the inception of stress research nearly 80 years ago, much of the focus has been on the levels of HPA, neuroendocrine hormones, namely glucocorticoids, acting as mediators of the myriad stress effects on the hippocampus. “ Kim et al. ( 2019 ).

But how is stress defined? No universal definition can be found. Burrrage et al. ( 2018 ) defined it as – “ a subjective perception of an adverse environmental change which leads to a stress response allowing for adaption to the new condition.” In an anatomical description Baummeister and Vohs, ( 2016 ), state,  “ stress raises heart rate, lowers heart rate variability, and worsens mood. Kim et al., ( 2015 ), have a different definition.

The complexity of stress is operationally defined to compromise heightened arousal or excitability, perceived awareness and decreased controllability with the HPA axis, the amygdala and the medial prefrontal cortex hypothesized as biological counterparts, respectively. Kim & Diamond, ( 2002 ).

In another study by Arnsten, ( 2012 ), “ some people are more vulnerable to stress because of early exposure. Even low levels of exposure can result in a loss of self-control and or to a relapse in maladaptive behaviors to stress.

Arnsten, et al. ( 2012 ) found, neural circuits responsible for conscious self-control are highly vulnerable to even mild stress. When they shut down, primal impulses go unchecked and mental paralysis sets in.

Research has shown that the stress response in the prefrontal cortex is magnified in teens, which lowers the condition for high-risk behavior and poor decision-making. Arnsten A,  (2019 ). Loss of prefrontal cortical higher cognition with uncontrollable stress. Molecular mechanisms changes with age and relevance to treatment ( Arnsten A. F.; Lee D; and Pittenger C, 2017 ). Risky business, the circuits that impact stress-induced decision-making.

Chronic stress produces impulsive behavior, and impulsivity worsens the behavior producing stress. It starts a vicious cycle. Arnstedt et al., ( 2017 ). Risky business, the circuits that impact stress-induced decision-making.

One study found the main effect between stress and interpersonal disputes confirmed by blunted changes in the left medial prefrontal cortex. Sinha, et al. ( 2016 ). Dynamic neural activity during stress signals resilient coping.

Stress has effects on intracellular signalling pathways that debilitate top-down executive functions from thoughtful prefrontal cortex regulation to the rapid emotional responses of the amygdala and related subcortical structures. Arnsten, A.F.T. ( 2009 ). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function.

Sinha and colleagues, ( 2005 ), studied how the brain is impacted by the memory of traumatizing events. Recall of personally distressing episodes lead to decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex and increased activity in the ventral stratal regions of the brain, supporting the concept that stress tips the balance to favor subcortical structures.

Research has found stress effects result in a variety of maladaptive behaviors, including greater emotional eating, maximum amounts of consumption of alcohol, increased frequency of interpersonal arguments and disputes. Sinha et al., ( 2016 ). Dynamic neural activity during stress signals, resilient coping.

In a recent study involving adolescents, Data & Arnsten,(  2019 ) found, “ the stress response in the prefrontal cortex may be magnified during adolescence, lowering the threshold for high-risk behaviors and poor decision-making under emotionally stressful conditions. In addition, stress tends to promote simple decision-making strategies that depend on ingrained habits “. Arnsten et al., ( 2017 ).

In Arnsten, ( 2009 ), the loss of self-control during stress exposure can lead to relapse of a number of maladaptive behaviors, ( e.g. drug addiction, smoking, drinking alcohol, and overeating .

Researchers found a profound main effect between memories of traumatizing events and brain reactivity from the stress effects. Heatherton, Todd, Wagner, Dillon, ( 2011 ). Cognitive Neuroscience of Self-Regulation Failure. Stress can trigger recall of personally distressing events impacted by the memory of traumatizing events.